Evocation and Hope: For me or for you?

When I saw Peter Jackson's first installment in the epic 'Lord of the Rings', I realised that Tolkien had been captured in film for me. There were discrepancies, of course. I had not envisioned the elves as embracing Art Deco fashions, nor was my vision of many of the characters, especially Galadriel, that of the actors who played the parts. Ultimately, it did not matter. He brought Middle Earth to life and now, childhood visions of the books are interwoven with Peter Jackson's epic film inextricably.

I found the following video on YouTube. Perhaps it will mean nothing to some one who never saw the film or whose soul does not resonate to it. That brings me to the oft-asked question: why do I write these posts? Is it a journal for myself, placed on the internet as a substitute for creating more stacks of papers in my room or is it for others?

Writers always have kept journals. Non-writers always have kept journals. One of the attractions of the 'web log' is the fact that there is a kind of in-built editing device. The fact that others CAN read the posts prevents too much self-indulgence and the divulgence of too many personal 'secrets' perhaps. One hopes that it forces the writer to be a little more interesting and a little less self-obsessed than otherwise.

When I watched this video, I understood that it had been made by an individual with as much emotion vested in Tolkien and 'Lord of the Rings' as I. It is not only the images themselves or the song, but the emotions that are evoked by them that invest the video with power. Like the bare image of a crucifix nailed to a wall, the images from 'Lord of the Rings' remind fans of the intense moments in the tale. We are reminded of the 'last stand' of the forces of good against the forces of evil. We are reminded of the extraordinary courage and devotion of Eowyn and the heroism at the Black Gate. We are reminded that there are causes that transcend our messy little lives...

An editorial in a local newspaper recently discussed a scam that is being perpetrated mainly against the elderly. It is a letter that contains a 'prayer rug' made of paper with an image of the Christ upon it. Follow the instructions and the eyes of Jesus are supposed to open, purportedly to show that HE is listening to your prayer and will answer it. Like many religious scams, the letter asks for 'seed money' and any money sent by some bizarre process of osmosis will yield fruit in the form of your wish come true.

Obviously, it is nothing more than a very old scam designed to obtain money under false pretenses... As I thought about it, however, it occurred to me that what is being marketed here may not be a complete fraud. It is HOPE. Every 'expert' in the human psyche will acknowledge the power of the Will and the power of 'mind over matter'. If a person BELIEVES, surely that is a potent weapon in his/her arsenal. The aesthetic portion of my soul decries the thought of a paper 'prayer rug' with an image of the Christ with eyes that open and shut, but what difference would it make to any one who believes in its efficacy and changes his/her actions to make the wish come true. I am not speaking here of the 'seed money' aspect of the scam but of the actions of the subconscious that could begin to work towards the fulfillment of the dream.

It is a great pity that some individuals will rely on the tawdry imagination of a scam artist to produce Hope for them but is the Hope itself negative or positive? Without hope, we become paralysed. On the other hand, the capitalist philosophy that brainwashes us into believing that one can place a monetary price on everything, including hope, is corrupt at its core in my view. Yet people do appear foolishly to value items that cost them dearly more than those that are free or inexpensive.

Recently, a study was made that involved wine connoisseurs. They were given a number of different wines to 'taste' with the price of each. The same wines were offered twice with two different price tags. Inevitably, the majority of 'tasters' chose the most expensive as the 'best', even though the same wine was offered with a far lower price attached to it! So much for the power of the mind and the inability to recognise intrinsic value if the market does not act as our guide!

Perhaps it is appropriate to address these issues today on Ash Wednesday. Last year, I devoted my posts to festivals and wrote about the festivals that occur at this time of year. Although the Islamic calendar is lunar rather than solar, 'Ashura this year occurred very near the season of Lent again. Many of the festivals that occur in January and February are devoted to sacrifice and rebirth, encouraging the soul to have faith in the light through the last dark months of Winter.

I never disliked Winter. I find it incredibly beautiful, especially in the North where snow falls and there is a very clear distinction between the trees that lose their leaves and the eternal evergreens. Were the trees not to be denuded of their 'garments', the magic of Spring could not exist, when every tree is clothed anew. The bright buds and leaves unfurl and the stark outlines of the branches are decorated with an incredible display of rich form and colour. Nature long ago taught us about 'fashion' in her rule over the seasons. Spring is glorious only because Winter paves the way...

Is it not enough for us to pay attention to Nature itself in order to obtain the Hope we need? Is not the sight of the first snowdrop far more potent than a paper 'prayer rug' with a religious image imprinted on it? Would not a real seed planted in the soil in autumn be far more potent than 'seed money' sent to a con artist?

In urban landscapes, it is far too easy to lose our natural direct connection to the land. It is possible in ANY place, however, to keep a plant in a pot. In Iran, the small plants that are cultivated for Nawroz are such, immediate proof of rebirth. They are the descendants of the ancient Adonis plants and like them, fragile but fast-growing, destined for a brief but showy life and ultimately to be thrown into the sea or river, a sacrifice of life FOR life.

In 'Lord of the Rings', I find all the eternal messages of hope and steadfastness and above all else, recognition that Self is less ultimately than the causes that transcend Self. The fate of the world is far more important than the individual fate of any human or animal... It is only when we forget this that we actually LOSE our courage and turn inward to a vision that is finite and ultimately lacks any future.

If we remember that we are part of the Earth, we cannot die wholly. If our hearts beat in unison with the great heart of Nature, then we live forever. I do believe in an 'afterlife' or 'hereafter' but even without that, we are part of THIS earth and THIS life after our bodies decay and are consumed by the earth. Moreover, those artists like Tolkien who create visions that capture the imagination of millions live forever in their work. True immortality may be that which inspires others from generation to generation.



'May It Be' Lord of the Rings and Enya

May it be an evening star
Shines down upon you;

May it be when darkness falls,
Your heart will be true.

You walk a lonely road...
Oh! How far you are from home.

Mornie utúlië (Darkness has come)
Believe and you will find your way.
Mornie alantië (Darkness has fallen)
A promise lives within you now.

May it be the shadow's call
Will fly away;
May it be you journey on
To light the day.

When the night is overcome,
You may rise to find the sun.


Mornie utúlië (Darkness has come)
Believe and you will find your way
Mornie alantië (Darkness has fallen)
A promise lives within you now.

A promise lives within you now.

The Vernal Equinox, Attis and Nawroz

The festival we now know as Easter was given its name by an ancient Northern European festival at the Vernal Equinox. Eostre was the Anglo-Saxon Goddess of the Dawn, a giver of life and fertility. Essentially an agricultural goddess, she caused plants to flourish and animals to multiply. The rabbit or hare was one of her symbols, which is how the Easter Bunny became part of modern Easter celebrations.
As contemporary Easter now falls on the first Sunday following the first full moon after the Vernal Equinox, it will occur in a few weeks.

The Vernal Equinox, however, remains important to many religions and cultures, from contemporary pagans who consider it one of the 8 Great Sabbats or Festivals in the Wheel of the Year to Iranians who celebrate it as 'Nawroz'.

In all traditions, an equinox is a time of great magic. Day and night are equal at the point of the Vernal Equinox. Like the working of the old Germanic rune of 'Dagaz' which is shaped like a butterfly or the double-ax, it is a time of balance. In many ancient cultures, the Vernal Equinox marked the New Year.
Primitive cultures were well aware of the cyclical nature of life and the changes in season. The Wheel is an ancient symbol of Life with set periods based on the movement of the Sun and Moon and other heavenly bodies. In many civilisations, it was water in the form of rain or the flooding of a river like the Nile that brought life back to the earth but these events occurred seasonally, and this was noted. The influence of the Moon on the tides was noted as well.

For ancient people, the Equinox represented a moment when life itself trembled in the balance, and many rituals that developed did so as an attempt to aid the forces of life and rebirth. In Northern climates, March is a capricious month. There can be temperatures high enough to cause plants to awaken from their winter slumbers, followed by a severe snowstorm. For agrarian cultures, this would be a month fraught with danger and risks. Seeds must be planted, and seedlings must be nurtured, but without artificial heat and light, much would depend on the goodwill of Nature.
To the Greeks, Spring was a time of the 'anoixis' or 'The Opening' and therefore a fitting beginning to the Year. In many ancient civilisations, the year began when the Sun moved into the House of the Ram.

One of the most popular and widely celebrated Festivals in ancient times was the Festival of Attis. The festival of Attis, son of the Great Mother Cybele was celebrated in Spring, and his rebirth was considered to occur at the time of the Equinox. Originally a Phrygian god, his cult spread throughout the Roman empire. In Rome each Spring, an evergreen pine would be cut down and adorned with violets, the flower that sprang from the blood of Attis. The death of Attis would be followed first by mourning and then by rejoicing when the god was resurrected.

Attis was a man or god who castrated himself and this act and its effects were central to his cult. His priests and worshippers often performed the same operation on themselves in an orgiastic culmination of the festival during Spring. Priests were known for their 'effeminate' appearance, with long flowing locks and flowing robes. The clashing of cymbals and wild dances characterised the rites of Attis. Ritual scourging and slashing as well as the rite of emasculation was common. Men both young and old would sacrifice their manhood at the Spring festival.

Although the main centre of the cult was at Pessinus, it was brought to Rome in 204 BC when the black stone of Cybele was instated in the Temple of Victory on Palatine Hill. At the Vernal Equinox, a pine tree symbolising Attis was carried into the temple and decorated with violets, a flower believed to have sprung from the blood of the god. A figure of Attis then was hanged or bound to the tree.

Roman sources describe the festival as follows:

On the 22nd day of March, a pine was chosen in the woods and cut, then borne back to the temple of Cybele by a guild of Tree-bearers. The trunk of the tree was swathed in woolen bands like a corpse and decorated with violets. The effigy of Attis was tied then to the middle of the tree.

On the second day, trumpets were blown. (Noise often characterises New Year celebrations. It either is an attempt to frighten off evil spirits or to 'wake the dead'.)

The third day, the 24th of March, was known as the 'Day of Blood'. The Archgallus or highest of the Galli priests would draw blood from his arms as an offering first. The followers of the god then would gash themselves with knives and potsherds so that a rain of blood fell upon the altar and sacred tree. The most devout would make the sacrifice of their manhood, and the severed parts were thrown onto the altar. Later, these sacrifices would be buried either in the earth or in underground chambers sacred to the goddess.

The effigy of the god was laid in the tomb then and the worshippers mourned his death.

In the same way in which worshippers abstained from any food prepared from grains ground in a mill during the mourning period for Tammuz, the devoted abstained from bread during these rites.

When night fell on the 24th, however, the mourning was transformed into great joy. A light was kindled in the darkness and the tomb was opened. The god Attis had risen from the dead. The priest whispered the message of salvation and eternal life into the ears of the worshippers, touching their lips with sacred balm.

The 25th of March, deemed the Vernal Equinox according to the old Roman calendar, was a festival of Joy, celebrating the resurrection of the god. During the Festival of Hilaria, universal licence prevailed. People were expected to dress in masquerade and the lowest of the low could present himself as an emperor or god on this day. This is similar to the later medieval festival honouring the 'Lord of Misrule'.

The 26th was a day of rest and on the last day of the Festival, the 27th of March, the statue of the Great Goddess was taken to the river in a waggon drawn by oxen. The high priest, robed in purple, washed the image of the Goddess, the waggon and all other sacred objects in the flowing waters, then decorated all with fresh flowers of Spring.

As the god himself died and was restored to life, it was believed that initiates who made the ultimate sacrifice of their manhood achieved immortality through their action.

When Christianity swept through the Empire, the festival of Attis was supplanted by Easter.

For years, I puzzled over this cult and marveled at its incredible and widespread popularity. It is not uncommon to find the idea of the 'androgynous being' as particularly sacred in ancient religions. In Native American tribes, there was an accepted role for a man who dressed as a woman and indeed lived as a woman in order to gain spiritual power. Many ancient gods were depicted as being both man and woman, with the power to create life from their own beings.

On one hand, the 'unmanned' Attis could represent the same sort of life in perfect balance as the Equinox itself. Neither male nor female, the god Attis is a symbol of a being stripped of gender in a sense. As the pine tree was denuded of its branches and in fact, as the May Poles in Europe later often were stripped of their branches before being set in the centre of the village, it is through this act that immorality is achieved. The Asherah poles of ancient Canaan were trees that had been ritually stripped of their branches.

I now believe that the truth is far simpler. The cult of Attis has its foundation in the ancient 'hierogamos' or sacred marriage. In ancient Sumer, the king would participate in a sacred marriage with the High Priestess in the role of the Goddess on her sacred throne/bed. In doing so, he would bring fertility and good fortune to the earth. He was the subordinate in this relationship for he was no more than the shepherd of the flock in the role of Dumuzi. He guarded the land and its creatures for the Goddess.

Dumuzi was a shepherd who played the pipes. Attis was portrayed as a shepherd who played the pipes. In early times, it is possible that the High Priest would assume the role of Attis in the same way as the High Priestess once assumed the role of the Great Goddess. He would be hanged and torn apart on a pine or fir tree like Marsyas.
In the ritual of Attis wherein men castrated themselves, they were in effect performing the sacred marriage once and for all, burying their manhood in the Earth to be united with the Goddess eternally. This is why the ritual would be perceived as the promise of eternal life and eternal bliss. Rather than being a cruel sacrifice, it would be elevate the status of the individual, making him the partner of the Goddess who ruled all.

However much we might like to believe that magic and power can be 'tamed' by 'civilising' influences, the fact of the matter is that true power is rather frightening and sometimes brutal. Neither Death nor Life are always gentle.

If we can grasp the spiritual significance of the sacrifice of Attis, we can go beyond the ostensible horror of the act. In fact, throughout history, there have been cults of emasculation. A famous cult existed in the Soviet Union in the 19th century. Emasculation was not a matter of 'gender-consciousness' or
wish-fulfillment but rather of ultimate dedication to the Goddess. Unlike contemporary examples of men who opt for the knife in order to 'become women' for sexual reasons, the ancient mystery religions were more concerned with other realms than with sexual gratification in this world.

Beyond that, of course, blood is a powerful substance and blood coupled with pain endured in a noble cause always have presented an irresistible attraction for the masses.

Mel Gibson in depicting Christ's torments graphically in 'The Passion' was condemned by many, but interestingly enough, the film inspired millions of Christians, prompting them to revitalise their faith. Flesh and blood is fragile, and life is transient at best. In a film about Vercingetorix entitled 'Druids', a character declares that: 'The greater the magic, the greater the sacrifice.' This axiom is an elementary one both in religion and magic.

The secret rites of Attis were very similar to those of the god Mithras. In fact, they originally may have been the same god, as Mithras often is portrayed wearing a Phrygian cap. Mithras almost surpassed Christ at one point in his popularity.

In rites shared by Attis and Mithras, ritual fasting was followed by a baptism in blood. After the fast, the novice would be given 'communion' by eating from a drum and drinking from a cymbal. The devotee, crowned in gold, would descend into a pit, the entrance to which was covered with a grate fashioned of wood. A bull wearing wreaths and garlands of flowers, with forehead decorated with gold leaf would be driven onto the grating, then stabbed with a consecrated spear. The blood would pour onto the novice. When he emerged from this bath of blood, those who awaited him would receive him as one reborn to eternal life. After this, he would restrict himself to milk like a newborn child for a period. This ceremony took place at the Vernal Equinox during the great Festival of Attis.

Originally, most agrarian communities made blood sacrifices at times of sowing and planting. In many civilisations, it was a human sacrifice. Like the Aztecs, who created a temporary god each year, worshipped and adored him for a few days, then killed him, cut him into pieces and consumed his flesh, this sort of ritual always was part of the history of humanity.

In Christianity, the 'body and blood of Christ' is consumed in the ritual of 'Holy Communion.' Whether or not one believes in the doctrine of transubstantiation, wherein the bread and wine actually becomes flesh and blood, the ritual commemorates a fundamental human rite of sacrifice and a means by which human partakes of and therefore becomes one with a God.

As late as the 19th century, people in some parts of the world continued to practice ritual human sacrifice and to sow human flesh with the seed into the earth in order to make it fruitful.

For some reason, contemporary society, while reveling in 'virtual' depictions of violence and death, is disgusted and appalled by the concept of human sacrifice. There is a question that comes to mind, however. Considering the fact that each one of us is doomed to die at some point, would it not be better to die as a god?

Those who accepted the role of sacrifice actually became one with the God or Goddess. In some cases, this sacrifice was made by the King himself. The ancient connection between Ruler and land was strong. A good king was believed to bring prosperity and fertility to his land and people. A king who was evil or cursed would cause sterility and ill-fortune.

'The Golden Bough' is filled with examples of rulers who were allowed a specific period of kingship, after which they were sacrificed and another king chosen or appointed. It has been suggested that the Archigallus of the cult of Attis originally became Attis and was hanged from the Tree in the Temple. Only later was a figure substituted for a real human being, and the outpourings of blood from the worshippers splattered onto the statue would allow the statue to acquire the essence of a human sacrifice.

Contemporary pagans for the most part celebrate the Eostre Sabbat simply as a celebration of the renewal of life. The old connection with sacrifice has disappeared. Although the act of leaping through or over a fire was part of early Spring rituals throughout Europe, it is Beltane that now is considered the real fire festival and huge bonfires are lit on the first of May.

Holi, a Hindu Spring Festival has many similaries with Nawroz. The bonfire is lit on the eve of the Festival. The Festival itself is a festival of colour, but it is preceded by an ancient Fire ritual. The 'sacrifice' in Holi is an interesting one. The tale involves a conflict between good and evil, with the ultimate triumph of the 'good' boy who emerges from the fire unscathed and the defeat of the 'evil' woman who, although she supposedly had the power to protect herself from being burned, failed to do so and was consumed. This, however, is a 'gloss' on a far more ancient ritual.

The ancients believed that Fire was sacred. Fire, like water, is an element that purifies. It creates smoke, a creature of air that rises to heaven itself. The ashes it creates could be considered the transformed essence of the object consumed by flame. Furthermore, the most ancient form of light to dispel darkness is fire. Before electricity, humanity used fire in order to prolong the period of light after the setting of the sun. Fire was a source of warmth as well as a means by which food could be cooked.

Another 'magical' property of fire is its ability to shape metal. When human beings discovered how to work with metal, they were able to create tools and weapons far more powerful than anything previously available. The Bronze Age was born from fire. We tend to forget the vital importance that fire played in the lives of our ancestors.

In many ancient myths throughout the world, there is a common tale of the Goddess who takes a young boy destined to become ruler into her care. Usually she disguises herself as a nursemaid and convinces the mother to allow her to care for the child. Each night, she places the child inside a fire. One night, the mother witnesses this and snatches the boy from the fire, believing that she has saved her child from an awful fate.

The Goddess then reveals herself and declares that she was making the boy immortal but that, having been interrupted, he will be vulnerable in one specific spot. (This is the source of what now is known as Achilles' heel.) It is the fate ultimately of the ruler in each of these old myths to be killed when an enemy discovers his weakness.

Fire therefore was considered to possess the power to make a being immortal. There are many tales of individuals who walked into a fire only to emerge triumphant from it. Human beings can walk upon hot coals and flames without being burned and there are those who know the trick of swallowing flames. Even now, fire has its allure.

The old Iranian religion of Zoroaster was a Fire religion and Nawroz is based upon this. There actually is an old tale to explain the Festival, although it probably was created after the fact as is often the case with respect to ancient rituals.
Over 2500 years ago, there was a king named Dhahak or Zuhad. He ruled with an iron fist and each day two young boys were sacrificed and their brains fed to the twin serpents that grew from each of his shoulders. (The Serpent God is an ancient character found throughout the world.)

As one might expect, a hero emerged to liberate the people from this monster. He was a blacksmith named Kawa. With the hammer and sickle forged in his smithy, he overthrew the tyrant. Bonfires were lit on every hilltop and rooftop to celebrate this event. This was the beginning of 'Nawroz', the festival of a 'new day'.

The eve of the last Wednesday of the year, known by Iranians as 'Red Wednesday' is the night on which bonfires are made and lit. Every one is supposed to leap over the fire, exclaiming, 'Give me your redness and take away my yellow.' This expression probably refers to the pallour of winter and the healthy ruddy complexion of summer.
The ashes of the bonfire are gathered carefully after the fire is allowed to die down naturally. They then are taken out to the fields and buried in the fields. This practice can be found in old rituals of Spring throughout the world. The ashes are a symbol of the death of winter, but they will bring fertility to the fields.
When the individual who buried the ashes returns to the house and knocks upon the door.

'Who is it?' he is challenged.
'It is I.'
'From whence do you come?'
'From a wedding.'
'What do you bring?'
'Happiness and mirth.'

The door then is opened, and the messenger of the New Year, who has warded off the evil eye and all ill-fortune is allowed to enter.

The Fire Festival is known as 'Charshanbe souri'.

There is another element of the Charshanbe Souri that is reminiscent of the old Roman Festival of Hilaria. Children and even adults often dress in disguise and visit the homes of neighbours, carrying empty metal bowls and spoons. The clashing of the spoons against the bowls alerts the owner of the house who opens the door and places a treat in each bowl. Usually those who are in disguise do not speak, remaining anonymous throughout the ritual.

In the old Festival of Attis, there were similar practices, wherein individuals dressed in costume and went from house to house. Noisemaking in processions is part of most New Year celebrations. The noise drives away evil spirits.

An interesting and rather beautiful custom of Nawroz is the Sofreh, a display that is placed on a large cloth in the centre of the main room of the house. This usually is created a few days before Nawroz and consists of items with great significance.
The items that are included in the Sofreh are as follows:

Candles are placed on the cloth, one for each child in the household. Often an egg accompanies each candle.

A holy book is placed there. For Muslims, it would be the Holy Qur'an. For others, it might be the Avesta, the Bible or a book of poems by Hafez.

The Haftsin: This consists of seven items whose names begin with the letter Sin. The items usually are set on a tray together and can be:
Sib (apple), Sumac, Sir (Garlic), Samanu (wheat pudding), Senjed (jujube fruit), Sohan (a sweet made with honey and nuts), Siyahdane (sesame seeds), Serke (vinegar), Sangak (bread baked on a bed of rocks).
Sometimes, inedible items are substituted, including:
Sekke (coins), Spand (wild rue), Sabzeh (wheat or lentil sprouts).
Originally the seven 'Sin' represented Ahura Mazda and the six Amesha Spentas who help regulate order or 'deen' in this world.

Other items on the sofreh are:
An upright mirror with a hard-boiled egg in the centre.
A bowl of water with an orange and a leaf from a rose bush floating in it.
Live goldfish in a bowl.
Barley, wheat or lentil sprouts growing since early March decorated with a red ribbon and with an orange in the centre.

The sprouting plants probably are the most interesting aspect of this festival as they can be traced back to the plants of Adonis that women grew in small dishes in honour of the god. In parts of Eastern Europe, women still grow wild rue in similar fashion in Spring. The culminating ritual of Nawroz is the same as that of Adonis, as a matter of fact, and can be seen in similar rituals throughout old Europe.

The 'sa'at i tahvil' is the moment when the old year ends and the new year begins. At this point, the entire household must gather round the Sofreh, wearing their new clothes, holding a coin in their hand. Their attention is fixed on the egg in the centre of the mirror. At the moment when the new year begins, the egg will roll on the mirror and the orange will turn over in the bowl of water. Cannons are fired to salute the New Year (wherever there are cannon).

Nawroz celebrations last for thirteen days. On the thirteenth day, the sabzeh is taken to a body of running water and thrown into it, precisely as the plants of Adonis were thrown in the water in the distant past.

Fortunetelling is a huge part of Nawroz and there are many rituals and old traditions relating to fortune. Girls will conceal themselves on street corners to overhear conversations of strangers. The first utterance of the stranger will be taken as an omen. This is known as 'falgush'. Another ritual is 'gereh gushai' whereby a person will tie a knot in his/her clothing and ask the first person crossing his/her path to untie it. This is supposed to bring resolution to any problem the person may have.

Many people refer to the book on the Sofreh as a means of fortune-telling by opening it randomly at any page and pointing to a line without reading it first. The line thus designated will contain a prediction for the coming year.

Nawroz is an occasion for gift-giving. People often give 'eydi' or Eid gifts, and even promotions in a job may be delayed until the New Year as being more auspicious if given then. Rather like an Easter egg hunt, there is a traditional game that is played with coins. The coins are hidden beneath the edges of carpets in a house and members of the family then search for them. Special coins or crisp new banknotes often form eydi, given ordinarily by the head of any household to family and visitors.

Nawroz is the last contemporary celebration of a New Year in our Calendar. In some ancient cultures, the New Year was celebrated on 1 November after the last harvest and the last slaughter of animals before the Winter. I do not think there is any culture now that celebrates the New Year at the end of Autumn, although in the Islamic lunar calendar, the first day of Muharram will fall on a different day each year and a different month every few years. New Year for Muslims therefore can be celebrated in Spring, Summer, Autumn or Winter. This was an attempt by Prophet Muhammad to distance people from the old seasonal rhythm of life and to set a pure relationship with God in its place. Although Islamic daily prayer or salah follows the rhythm of the sun and in fact, in many ways Islam is very much attuned to Nature and natural forces and elements, the Calendar is not.

Although contemporary society professes to be 'beyond' any need to propitiate the fates and our natural rhythms are obscured by artificial light and heat, people continue to look for 'closure' in their lives and to celebrate new beginnings. New Year celebrations are as popular now as ever, even if their original purposes sometimes have been forgotten.